Order in Space: A Design Source Book

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Steffl, A. J.; Cunningham, N. J.; Shinn, A. B.; Stern, S. A. (2013). "A Search for Vulcanoids with the STEREO Heliospheric Imager". Icarus. 233 (1): 48–56. arXiv: 1301.3804. Bibcode: 2013Icar..223...48S. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2012.11.031. S2CID 118612132. Timeline of spaceflight – Chronological list of events in spaceflight broken down as a separate article for each year In the 17th century, Galileo publicized the use of the telescope in astronomy; he and Simon Marius independently discovered that Jupiter had four satellites in orbit around it. [242] Christiaan Huygens followed on from these observations by discovering Saturn's moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn. [243] In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realize that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. [244] Halley's friend Isaac Newton, in his magisterial Principia Mathematica of 1687, demonstrated that celestial bodies are not quintessentially different from Earthly ones: the same laws of motion and of gravity apply on Earth and in the skies. [34] :142 Allen, Clabon Walter (2000). Cox, Arthur N. (ed.). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer. pp.293–313. ISBN 978-0-387-98746-0. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 1 May 2022.

a b Levison, H.F.; Morbidelli, A. (27 November 2003). "The formation of the Kuiper belt by the outward transport of bodies during Neptune's migration". Nature. 426 (6965): 419–421. Bibcode: 2003Natur.426..419L. doi: 10.1038/nature02120. PMID 14647375. S2CID 4395099. What Color is the Sun?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 25 May 2016 . Retrieved 23 May 2016. Alexander, Amir (2006). "New Horizons Set to Launch on 9-Year Voyage to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 22 February 2006 . Retrieved 8 November 2006. First observation of an extrasolar planet ( exoplanet) round Van Maanen 2 although it is not recognised as such at the time. Noever, David (2004). "Modern Martian Marvels: Volcanoes?". NASA Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020 . Retrieved 23 July 2006. {{ cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( link)

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Eris (67.78AU average from the Sun) is the largest known scattered disc object, and caused a debate about what constitutes a planet, because it is 25% more massive than Pluto [180] and about the same diameter. It is the most massive of the known dwarf planets. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. Like Pluto, its orbit is highly eccentric, with a perihelion of 38.2 AU (roughly Pluto's distance from the Sun) and an aphelion of 97.6 AU, and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane at an angle of 44°. [181] Main article: Giant planet The outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, compared to the inner planets Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury at the bottom right

The Sun is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium, [46] as are Jupiter and Saturn. [47] [48] A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the early Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points. [49] The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could coalesce is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly five times the Earth's distance from the Sun. [3] The Solar System was formed 4.6billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. Over time, the cloud formed the Sun and a protoplanetary disk that gradually coalesced to form planets and other objects. That is the reason why all eight planets have an orbit that lies near the same plane. In the present day, 99.86% of the Solar System's mass is in the Sun and most of the remaining mass is contained in the planet Jupiter. Six planets and many other bodies have natural satellites or moons orbiting around them. All of the giant planets and a few smaller bodies are encircled by planetary rings, composed of ice, dust and sometimes moonlets. Porco, C. C.; Helfenstein, P.; Thomas, P. C.; Ingersoll, A. P.; Wisdom, J.; West, R.; Neukum, G.; Denk, T.; Wagner, R. (March 10, 2006). "Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus" (PDF). Science. 311 (5766): 1393–1401. Bibcode: 2006Sci...311.1393P. doi: 10.1126/science.1123013. PMID 16527964. S2CID 6976648. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved August 29, 2020.

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Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the center of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion. [18] The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure counterbalancing the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star. [19] The main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other subsequent phases of the Sun's pre- remnant life combined. [20] Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space. As helium accumulates at its core the Sun is growing brighter; [21] early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today. [22] Dyches, Preston; Chou, Felcia (7 April 2015). "The Solar System and Beyond is Awash in Water". NASA . Retrieved 8 April 2015.

Main article: Scattered disc The orbital eccentricities and inclinations of the scattered disc population compared to the classical and resonant Kuiper belt objects Makemake (45.79AU average from the Sun), although smaller than Pluto, is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt (that is, a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune). Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto. Discovered in 2005, it was officially named in 2009. [166] Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto's, at 29°. [167] It has one known moon. [168] Rogers, John H. (1995). The giant planet Jupiter. Cambridge University Press. p.293. ISBN 978-0521410083. Archived from the original on 20 April 2022 . Retrieved 13 April 2022.

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van Albada, T.S.; Baker, Norman (1973). "On the Two Oosterhoff Groups of Globular Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 185: 477–498. Bibcode: 1973ApJ...185..477V. doi: 10.1086/152434. a b c Zabludoff, Ann. "Lecture 13: The Nebular Theory of the origin of the Solar System". NATS 102: The Physical Universe. University of Arizona. Archived from the original on 22 August 2011 . Retrieved 27 December 2006. Woolfson, M. (2000). "The origin and evolution of the solar system". Astronomy & Geophysics. 41 (1): 1.12–1.19. Bibcode: 2000A&G....41a..12W. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x. Comets are small Solar System bodies, [d] typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye. [151]