The Evolution of Home: English Interiors for a New Era

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Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, [77] lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 [78] to about 28,000 years ago. [79] a b Mondal M, Bertranpetit J, Lao O (January 2019). "Approximate Bayesian computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 246. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10..246M. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-08089-7. PMC 6335398. PMID 30651539.

Blell, Mwenza (September 29, 2017). "Grandmother Hypothesis, Grandmother Effect, and Residence Patterns". The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology: 1–5. doi: 10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea2162. ISBN 978-1-118-92439-6. The earliest known catarrhine is Kamoyapithecus from the uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Great Rift Valley in Kenya, dated to 24million years ago. [24] Its ancestry is thought to be species related to Aegyptopithecus, Propliopithecus, and Parapithecus from the Faiyum, at around 35mya. [25] In 2010, Saadanius was described as a close relative of the last common ancestor of the crown catarrhines, and tentatively dated to 29–28mya, helping to fill an 11-million-year gap in the fossil record. [26] Reconstructed tailless Proconsul skeleton Nonetheless, humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, males being around 15% larger than females. [173] These changes taken together have been interpreted as a result of an increased emphasis on pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring. [174] Ulnar opposition [ edit ] Only the human is able to touch the little finger with the thumb. Homo rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was a specimen of Homo habilis, but this has not been confirmed. [63]Neanderthals also had significantly larger brains, as shown from brain endocasts, casting doubt on their intellectual inferiority to modern humans. However, the higher body mass of Neanderthals may have required larger brain mass for body control. [80] Also, recent research by Pearce, Stringer, and Dunbar has shown important differences in brain architecture. The larger size of the Neanderthal orbital chamber and occipital lobe suggests that they had a better visual acuity than modern humans, useful in the dimmer light of glacial Europe. There are a number of clear anatomical differences between anatomically modern humans (AMH) and Neanderthal specimens, many relating to the superior Neanderthal adaptation to cold environments. Neanderthal surface to volume ratio was even lower than that among modern Inuit populations, indicating superior retention of body heat. Bokma, Folmer; van den Brink, Valentijn; Stadler, Tanja (September 2012). "Unexpectedly many extinct hominins". Evolution. 66 (9): 2969–2974. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01660.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 22946817. S2CID 13145359. Homo erectus lived from about 1.8 Ma to about 70,000 years ago – which would indicate that they were probably wiped out by the Toba catastrophe; however, nearby H.floresiensis survived it. The early phase of H.erectus, from 1.8 to 1.25 Ma, is considered by some to be a separate species, H.ergaster, or as H.erectus ergaster, a subspecies of H.erectus. Many paleoanthropologists now use the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserve H.erectus only for those fossils that are found in Asia and meet certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from H.ergaster. Martinón-Torres, María; Dennell, Robin; Bermúdez de Castro, José María (February 2011). "The Denisova hominin need not be an out of Africa story". Journal of Human Evolution. 60 (2): 251–255. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.10.005. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 21129766.

Sample, Ian (June 7, 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens bones ever found shake foundations of the human story". The Guardian. Archived from the original on October 31, 2019 . Retrieved June 7, 2017. Harvati, Katerina (January 2003). "The Neanderthal taxonomic position: models of intra- and inter-specific craniofacial variation". Journal of Human Evolution. 44 (1): 107–132. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00208-7. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12604307. a b Yong, Ed (July 2011). "Mosaic humans, the hybrid species". New Scientist. 211 (2823): 34–38. Bibcode: 2011NewSc.211...34Y. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3. Viegas, Jennifer (May 21, 2010). "Toothy Tree-Swinger May Be Earliest Human". Discovery News. Silver Spring, MD: Discovery Communications, LLC. Archived from the original on May 9, 2015 . Retrieved April 28, 2015. a b Kwang Hyun, Ko (2015). "Origins of Bipedalism". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 58 (6): 929–934. arXiv: 1508.02739. Bibcode: 2015arXiv150802739K. doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132015060399. S2CID 761213.The immediate survival advantage of encephalization is difficult to discern, as the major brain changes from Homo erectus to Homo heidelbergensis were not accompanied by major changes in technology. It has been suggested that the changes were mainly social and behavioural, including increased empathic abilities, [153] [154] increases in size of social groups, [147] [155] [156] and increased behavioral plasticity. [157] Humans are unique in the ability to acquire information through social transmission and adapt that information. [158] The emerging field of cultural evolution studies human sociocultural change from an evolutionary perspective. [159] Evolution of the shape, size, and contours of the human ( Homo) skull [160] [161] [a] [164] [d] [2] [166] [167] [168] [169] [103] [170] [171] Sexual dimorphism [ edit ] It has been argued in a study of the life history of Ar. ramidus that the species provides evidence for a suite of anatomical and behavioral adaptations in very early hominins unlike any species of extant great ape. [28] This study demonstrated affinities between the skull morphology of Ar. ramidus and that of infant and juvenile chimpanzees, suggesting the species evolved a juvenalised or paedomorphic craniofacial morphology via heterochronic dissociation of growth trajectories. It was also argued that the species provides support for the notion that very early hominins, akin to bonobos ( Pan paniscus) the less aggressive species of the genus Pan, may have evolved via the process of self-domestication. Consequently, arguing against the so-called "chimpanzee referential model" [29] the authors suggest it is no longer tenable to use chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes) social and mating behaviors in models of early hominin social evolution. When commenting on the absence of aggressive canine morphology in Ar. ramidus and the implications this has for the evolution of hominin social psychology, they wrote: The earliest member of the genus Homo is Homo habilis which evolved around 2.8million years ago. [32] H.habilis is the first species for which we have positive evidence of the use of stone tools. They developed the Oldowan lithic technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in which the first specimens were found. Some scientists consider Homo rudolfensis, a larger bodied group of fossils with similar morphology to the original H.habilis fossils, to be a separate species, while others consider them to be part of H.habilis—simply representing intraspecies variation, or perhaps even sexual dimorphism. The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. Study identifies energy efficiency as reason for evolution of upright walking". UANews. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona. July 16, 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2022 . Retrieved April 23, 2015. Rui Zhang; Yin-Qiu Wang; Bing Su (July 2008). "Molecular Evolution of a Primate-Specific microRNA Family". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 25 (7): 1493–1502. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msn094. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 18417486.

Zimmer, Carl (August 31, 2023). "Humanity's Ancestors Nearly Died Out, Genetic Study Suggests - The population crashed following climate change about 930,000 years ago, scientists concluded. Other experts aren't convinced by the analysis". the New York Times. Archived from the original on August 31, 2023 . Retrieved September 2, 2023. a b Krause, Johannes; Qiaomei Fu; Good, Jeffrey M.; etal. (April 8, 2010). "The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia". Nature. 464 (7290): 894–897. Bibcode: 2010Natur.464..894K. doi: 10.1038/nature08976. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10152974. PMID 20336068. S2CID 4415601. The shortening of the pelvis and smaller birth canal evolved as a requirement for bipedalism and had significant effects on the process of human birth, which is much more difficult in modern humans than in other primates. During human birth, because of the variation in size of the pelvic region, the fetal head must be in a transverse position (compared to the mother) during entry into the birth canal and rotate about 90 degrees upon exit. [129] The smaller birth canal became a limiting factor to brain size increases in early humans and prompted a shorter gestation period leading to the relative immaturity of human offspring, who are unable to walk much before 12 months and have greater neoteny, compared to other primates, who are mobile at a much earlier age. [122] The increased brain growth after birth and the increased dependency of children on mothers had a major effect upon the female reproductive cycle, [130] and the more frequent appearance of alloparenting in humans when compared with other hominids. [131] Delayed human sexual maturity also led to the evolution of menopause with one explanation, the grandmother hypothesis, providing that elderly women could better pass on their genes by taking care of their daughter's offspring, as compared to having more children of their own. [132] [133] Encephalization [ edit ] Skulls of successive (or near-successive, depending on the source) human evolutionary ancestors, [c] up until 'modern' Homo sapiens Mellars, Paul; French, Jennifer C. (July 29, 2011). "Tenfold Population Increase in Western Europe at the Neandertal–to–Modern Human Transition Paul". Science. 333 (6042): 623–627. Bibcode: 2011Sci...333..623M. doi: 10.1126/science.1206930. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21798948. S2CID 28256970. van den Bergh GD, Kaifu Y, Kurniawan I, Kono RT, Brumm A, Setiyabudi E, Aziz F, Morwood MJ (June 8, 2016). " Homo floresiensis-like fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores". Nature. 534 (7606): 245–248. Bibcode: 2016Natur.534..245V. doi: 10.1038/nature17999. PMID 27279221. S2CID 205249218.Krings, Matthias; Stone, Anne; Schmitz, Ralf W.; etal. (July 11, 1997). "Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans". Cell. 90 (1): 19–30. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80310-4. hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-0960-8. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 9230299. S2CID 13581775.

Anthropologists in the 1980s were divided regarding some details of reproductive barriers and migratory dispersals of the genus Homo. Subsequently, genetics has been used to investigate and resolve these issues. According to the Sahara pump theory evidence suggests that the genus Homo have migrated out of Africa at least three and possibly four times (e.g. Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis and two or three times for Homo sapiens). Recent evidence suggests these dispersals are closely related to fluctuating periods of climate change. [241] Sample, Ian (June 22, 2015). "My Neanderthal sex secret: modern European's great-great grandparent link". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved July 27, 2018. Recent human evolution related to agriculture includes genetic resistance to infectious disease that has appeared in human populations by crossing the species barrier from domesticated animals, [213] as well as changes in metabolism due to changes in diet, such as lactase persistence. H. ergaster is often considered the next evolutionary ancestor to H. sapiens following H. erectus, however, there is considerable uncertainty as to the accuracy of classifying it as a separate species from H. erectus at all. [135]Anatomically, the evolution of bipedalism has been accompanied by a large number of skeletal changes, not just to the legs and pelvis, but also to the vertebral column, feet and ankles, and skull. [126] The femur evolved into a slightly more angular position to move the center of gravity toward the geometric center of the body. The knee and ankle joints became increasingly robust to better support increased weight. To support the increased weight on each vertebra in the upright position, the human vertebral column became S-shaped and the lumbar vertebrae became shorter and wider. In the feet the big toe moved into alignment with the other toes to help in forward locomotion. The arms and forearms shortened relative to the legs making it easier to run. The foramen magnum migrated under the skull and more anterior. [127]